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November 20, 2023
Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder triggered by dietary gluten in genetically predisposed individuals. Gluten is a protein found in wheat and related grains such as barley and rye. The disease affects one to two percent of Western populations.
An international team of physicians conducted a nationwide cohort study of the Swedish population to explore the relationship between childhood celiac disease and subsequent psychiatric disorders, including ADHD, as well as suicide attempts and suicide.
With data from all 28 pathology departments in Sweden, they identified all 19,186 children with a diagnosis of biopsy-verified celiac disease from 1973 through 2016, and no previous history of psychiatric disorder. They then matched them with 94,249 children controls matched for age, sex, county, and calendar year from the Swedish national registers that encompass the entire resident population.
To address shared intrafamilial confounding, including genetic and early environmental factors, the team also compared 13,015 individuals with celiac disease with their 18,024 non-celiac siblings.
Additional Swedish national registers (Patient Register, Cause of Death Register) then made it possible to link the preceding data with data on subsequent psychiatric disorders and suicides for all the children in the study.
Celiac disease diagnosed in childhood was associated with a 19 percent higher risk of any subsequent psychiatric disorder at any time than for controls. The greatest spike in risk - 70 percent higher than for non-celiac controls - was in the first year following diagnosis of celiac disease. Restricting follow-up until the age of 18 years, celiac disease was linked to a 26 percent increased risk of any psychiatric disorder. For adults 18 and over, the increased risk declined to just 11 percent. So an initial sharp spike was followed by a steeply declining curve over time.
For ADHD, the increased risk at any time after the diagnosis of celiac disease was 29 percent. That compares with 47 percent for autism spectrum disorder, 34 percent for eating disorders, 20 percent for mood disorders, and 12 percent for anxiety disorders. There was no increased risk of psychotic disorders, behavioral disorders, personality disorders, psychoactive substance abuse, suicide attempts, or suicide. For adults 18 and over, however, the increased risk of ADHD rose to 39 percent, second only to autism spectrum disorder. For these two psychiatric conditions, there was an upward curve rather than a declining one.
The sibling analyses found a reduced but still significant 12 percent increased risk of psychiatric disorder following a diagnosis of celiac disease, again with the first-year spike of 48 percent increased risk declining to insignificance for the period beginning five years later. For ADHD, the increased risk also descended to 12 percent, but became non-significant, suggesting the increases were primarily attributable to confounding variables.
Among the 2,071 children with celiac disease who had a follow-up biopsy that showed mucosal healing of the small intestine in response to a gluten-free diet, the association with subsequent psychiatric disorders vanished.
The authors speculated that the spike in psychiatric diagnoses in the year following diagnosis of celiac disease could be because "the systemic inflammatory response is mediating this relationship," or could be due to "the psychosocial stress associated with adapting to the gluten-free diet." "However," they cautioned, "this risk is unlikely to be due to the gluten-free diet alone since we also observed an increased risk of psychiatric disorders preceding the diagnosis of celiac disease, possibly related to the systemic inflammatory response described above." We must also keep in mind that such studies cannot rule out all sources of confounding or the possibility that being diagnosed with celiac disease leads to more exposure to the healthcare system and more opportunities for a diagnosis of ADHD to be recognized.
Benjamin Lebwohl, MD, Linnea Haggård, MD, Louise Emilsson, MD, PhD, Jonas Söderling, PhD, Bjorn Roelstraete PhD, and Agnieszka Butwicka,MD, Peter HR Green, MD, Jonas F.
Ludvigsson, MD, Ph.D., "Psychiatric disorders in patients with a diagnosis of celiac disease during childhood from 1973 to 2016," Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2020.08.018.
Background:
One of the more persistent concerns among parents of children with ADHD is whether stimulant medications will stunt their child's growth. A large Israeli cohort study now offers some of the most rigorous reassurance to date, and its methodology sets it apart from earlier research.
The question has long been complicated by a more fundamental uncertainty: do growth differences in children with ADHD stem from the condition itself, from stimulant treatment, or from factors present before any medication is ever prescribed? Without a clear answer, clinicians and families have faced a genuine dilemma when weighing the benefits of stimulant therapy against potential long-term physical costs.
Most previous studies compounded this difficulty by comparing group-average heights, which ignores the crucial variable of genetic potential. A child who is short relative to the general population may simply have short parents. Failing to account for this introduces systematic bias and can make medications appear more harmful than they are.
The Study:
The Israeli research team addressed this directly. Using health records from a nationwide provider, they assembled a retrospective cohort of children born between 1995 and 2003, following them through 2023. This amount of time was long enough for all participants to have reached adult stature (defined as 17 or older for females, 19 or older for males). Their sample included 5,671 children with untreated ADHD, 11,846 who received stimulant treatment, and 47,258 non-ADHD controls. Children who took stimulants for only one to two months, or who had chronic medical conditions requiring long-term medication, were excluded to avoid confounding the results.
Crucially, adult height was evaluated not against population norms but against each individual's expected height, calculated from parental heights using the Tanner-Goldstein-Whitehouse method, a standard approach for estimating genetic height potential via mid-parental height.
When the researchers compared adult heights across the three groups using analysis of variance (ANOVA), they did find statistically significant differences. But statistical significance, particularly in studies with tens of thousands of participants, does not automatically translate into clinical significance. The effect sizes were consistently very small, and the absolute differences were under one centimeter, which is a margin considered clinically negligible.
Their conclusion is measured but clear: after accounting for genetic growth potential, neither an ADHD diagnosis nor stimulant treatment was associated with meaningful reductions in adult height. The findings, they argue, support prioritizing behavioral and functional outcomes when making treatment decisions, since the risk of clinically significant height loss appears to be minimal.
The Take-Away:
For families navigating ADHD treatment, the practical implication is significant: concerns about permanent growth suppression, while understandable, should not be the primary driver of whether or how long a child receives stimulant therapy.
A recent meta-analysis examined how well cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) improves not just symptoms, but everyday functioning and quality of life in adults with ADHD.
The Background:
ADHD in adults affects far more than attention or impulsivity. It often disrupts key areas of life:
These broad impacts highlight a key issue: reducing symptoms does not automatically translate into better day-to-day functioning.
CBT is a structured, skills-based therapy that helps people:
While both medication (especially stimulants) and CBT improve core ADHD symptoms, CBT is particularly aimed at improving real-world functioning.
The Study:
The researchers analyzed studies involving adults diagnosed with ADHD (or showing clinically significant symptoms). They included:
They focused specifically on outcomes beyond symptoms:
The Results:
1. Strongest Effects: Occupational functioning
CBT showed consistently strong improvements in work-related functioning compared to control groups, both immediately after treatment and at follow-up. This was the most robust finding across domains.
2. Moderate Improvement: Global Functional Impairment
CBT led to moderate improvements in overall daily functioning, with some evidence that gains persist over time. In studies tracking individuals over time, improvements were even stronger at follow-up.
3. Modest Gains: Social Relationships
CBT produced small to moderate improvements in social functioning. Benefits were present both after treatment and at follow-up, but were less pronounced than in work-related outcomes.
4. Limited Effects: Academic Functioning
There were moderate short-term gains when CBT was compared to control groups, but these did not persist at follow-up. Within-subject studies showed only small improvements overall.
5. Modest and Inconsistent Effects: Quality of Life
Improvements in quality of life were small when compared to control groups and often did not last. However, studies tracking individuals over time showed moderate improvements, suggesting some benefit that may not always show up clearly in between-group comparisons.
Overall, the findings suggest:
One notable nuance: CBT did not always outperform other active treatments (like medication or other therapies). This suggests that while CBT is effective, its benefits may partly overlap with broader therapeutic or support effects rather than relying on a single, unique mechanism.
The Take-Away:
CBT is a valuable, evidence-based treatment for adults with ADHD, especially for improving work functioning and overall daily life management. However, its impact on relationships, academic outcomes, and quality of life is more limited and less consistent, pointing to the need for more targeted or combined approaches in those areas.
The Background:
ADHD and epilepsy are the two most common neurological disorders in children and adolescents. Additionally, they appear as co-diagnoses more often than chance would predict. Roughly a quarter of children with epilepsy also have ADHD, and children with ADHD face a 2.5-times greater risk of developing epilepsy than their peers.
Clinicians have long suspected that carrying both diagnoses compounds cognitive difficulties, but no rigorous quantitative review has mapped out exactly how much, or in what ways. This new meta-analysis now fills that gap.
The Study:
The team pooled data from peer-reviewed studies that included children and adolescents diagnosed with both conditions alongside at least one comparison group: children with neither condition, children with epilepsy alone, or children with ADHD alone. To capture the breadth of thinking skills, they constructed a general intelligence factor drawing on six cognitive domains:
The Results:
Across eleven studies (995 participants), children and adolescents with both conditions scored moderately lower on general intelligence than those with epilepsy alone. The same pattern held across all six cognitive domains. Seven studies (785 participants) comparing the dual-diagnosis group with those who had ADHD alone found an equally consistent moderate deficit, replicated in every domain.
The clearest signal emerged when researchers compared children and adolescents carrying both diagnoses to typically-developing peers. Seven studies covering 427 individuals revealed a substantially larger gap in general intelligence, with the effects of the two conditions appearing to be roughly additive, meaning the combined burden was approximately equal to the sum of each condition's individual impact. This pattern held across five of the six domains.
The Interpretation:
The results come with meaningful caveats. Variability across individual studies was moderate in the first two comparisons and high in the third, reflecting real differences in how studies were designed, which populations they sampled, and how they measured cognition. While there was no sign of publication bias in the first group, it was not assessed in two of the three analyses.
The authors describe “a widespread profile of cognitive dysfunction” in children and adolescents with both epilepsy and ADHD, while underscoring that the substantial variability between studies warrants caution in drawing overly precise conclusions. The findings nonetheless carry practical weight: children managing both conditions may need more intensive cognitive screening and support than current clinical practice routinely provides.
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